Sweden
Country in northern Europe, bounded west by Norway, northeast by Finland
and the Gulf of Bothnia, southeast by the Baltic Sea, and southwest
by the Kattegat.
Government
Sweden has a hereditary monarch as formal head of state, and a popularly
elected government. The constitution is based on four fundamental
laws: the Instrument of Government Act 1809, the Act of Succession
1810, the Freedom of the Press Act 1949, and the Riksdag Act 1974.
The constitution provides for a single- chamber parliament, the
Riksdag, comprising 349 members, elected by universal suffrage,
through a system of proportional representation, for a three-year
term.
The prime minister is nominated by the speaker of the Riksdag
and confirmed by a vote of the whole house. The prime minister
chooses a cabinet, and all are then responsible to the Riksdag.
The monarch now has a purely formal role; the normal duties of
a constitutional monarch, such as dissolving parliament and deciding
who should be asked to form an administration, are undertaken
by the speaker.
History
The earliest traces of human presence, dating from around 10,000 BC,
have been found at Segebro near Malmö, and a small population
of hunters probably inhabited the southern part of Sweden at this
time. During the Mesolithic period, the Maglemosian culture (around
6000 BC) found all over Scandinavia is represented at sites such
as Lilla Loshult Mosse and round Ringsjö. Pottery appears first
on sites of the Ertebolle culture (around 4000 BC).
Evidence of Neolithic agriculture has been found in settlements
in Skåne, Blekinge, and elsewhere. Remains of the Via culture,
in the form of houses as well as pottery and stone tools, have
been found at Östia Viå and Mogetorp in Sodermanland. In the later
Neolithic period a megalithic culture emerged.
The Bronze and Iron Ages
In the middle of the 2nd millennium bronze weapons and tools were imported
and also made locally in the Lake Mälaren area. Burial mounds
and cairns of the Bronze Age are common in southern Sweden. Few
remains have been found from the period of transition from the
Bronze Age to the Iron Age (600-400 BC), and it is possible that
the harsher climate at this time caused widespread emigration.
In the Middle or Roman Iron Age the return of a better climate
brought about an expansion of culture, and the many Roman imports
suggest a higher standard of living. The Migration period (around
AD 400- 550) shows a marked increase in prosperity and is one
of the great periods of Swedish art. Important gold hoards have
been found at Timboholm and near Tureholm. The goldsmiths' work
is of fine quality, as can be seen in the collars from Å lleberg
and Möne.
The Middle Ages
The early history of Sweden is contained in legend and saga. The country
appears to have been inhabited by two separate but closely related
peoples, the Swedes in the north and the Goths in the south. In
the Viking era, the Swedish Vikings penetrated many parts of the
Baltic, and sailed down the great rivers of Russia. In Russia
they founded the principality of Novgorod and traded as far south
as the Black Sea.
Although Christianity was first introduced at a much earlier
period, it was not until the mid-12th century that the Swedes
were united with the Goths and accepted Christianity. A series
of crusades from the 12th to the 14th centuries brought Finland
under Swedish rule. The later Middle Ages in Sweden are marked
by a centralization of power in the country, but also by clashes
between rival claimants to the throne and between the king and
the nobility.
The union with Denmark
By the Union of Kalmar in 1397 the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden came under the common regency of Margaret of Denmark (see
Denmark). Margaret's successors were not, however, always able
to assert their authority in Sweden. There was a popular revolt
in 1434 led by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, and during several periods
Swedish noblemen were in effective control of Sweden, even taking
the title of king (see, for example, Charles VIII).
The union finally came to an end in the reign of Christian II,
after his massacre of the leaders of a Swedish rebellion (the
Stockholm Bloodbath, 1520). Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish noble, started
a revolt in Dalarna in 1521 and, with help from Lübeck (one of
the most powerful cities of the Hanseatic League), made Sweden
independent of Denmark- Norway. He was elected king as Gustavus
I by the Riksdag (parliament) in 1523 and survived a series of
revolts to leave Sweden a financially and politically stable country
on his death in 1560. He exploited the arrival of Lutheranism
in Sweden to destroy the power of the Roman Catholic Church and
to appropriate its possessions in 1527, but Lutheran services
only gradually replaced Catholic ceremonies in Sweden. The Vasa
dynasty continued to rule Sweden until 1818.
Towards Baltic domination
Gustavus's son Eric XIV (ruled 1560-68) embarked on a campaign of expansion
in the southern Baltic and took Estonia under Swedish protection
in 1561, but otherwise had little success in a debilitating seven
years' war with Denmark. His half- brother, John III (ruled 1568-92),
continued the Baltic campaign. Married to a Polish princess, he
brought up his son Sigismund as a Roman Catholic and had him elected
king of Poland in 1587.
Sigismund's religion, however, proved a serious handicap on
his accession to the Swedish throne in 1592, and he was opposed
by his ruthless and ambitious uncle Charles, who finally had Sigismund
deposed and himself hailed as king by the Riksdag in 1600. As
Charles IX he too fought in the Baltic states with little success,
and on his death in 1611 he left to his 16-year-old son, Gustavus
II (Gustavus Adolphus), a country that was at war with Denmark,
Poland, and Russia.
Gustavus Adolphus
Sweden in 1611 was lacking in population, internal communications,
and material resources, and its geographical position was unfavourable
for the expansion of its trade, since its way to the North Sea
and the Atlantic was controlled by Denmark. Gustavus Adolphus,
`the Lion of the North´, continued the policy of turning the Baltic
into a ` Swedish lake´. He ended the war with Denmark, recovering
territory lost by his father. War with Russia gave Sweden control
of what is now the Baltic coast of Russia, while war with Poland
ended in a truce (1629), which confirmed Sweden in possession
of Livonia (most of present-day Latvia and Estonia) and gave it
a grip on the mainland of Germany.
In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus intervened in the Thirty Years' War
to champion the Protestant cause in Europe. Following his landing
in Germany, he won a series of spectacular triumphs in 1631 and
1632: the Catholic League was defeated; the Catholic general,
Tilly, was out-manoeuvred and finally killed ; and Gustavus Adolphus
was able to penetrate to the south. He was obliged to turn north
again by the attacks of the Habsburg general Wallenstein in Saxony,
and defeated Wallenstein at Lützen, although he himself was killed
in the battle (see L ützen, Battle of , 1632).
Gustavus Adolphus was the real founder of the greatness of Sweden.
He strengthened the country internally by his domestic and financial
reforms; the government was centralized and strong; the army was
reformed; and Sweden for the next century was one of the great
powers in Europe. In fact its resources were always strained to
the utmost to maintain this position, and its Baltic possessions
were to embroil it in a series of wars that it could not afford
- but without which it could not hope to keep them.
The later 17th century
Gustavus Adolphus was succeeded by his daughter, six-year-old Christina.
Christina's minority was made famous by the achievements of the
regent and chancellor, Axel Oxenstjerna, who pursued her father's
foreign policy and maintained Swedish interests during and after
the Thirty Years' War. The success of Sweden was seen in the Treaty
of Westphalia (1648) that ended the war and marked the zenith
of Swedish power. Sweden became an important power in Germany,
and was recognized as the leader of Protestant Europe, and the
greatest power of the north. In 1645 Denmark was forced to give
up its right to tolls in the Sound, and ceded Gotland, Jämtland,
Härjedalen, and, temporarily, Halland to Sweden.
In 1654 Christina became a Catholic and abdicated in favour
of her cousin, Charles X. He continued the work of Gustavus Adolphus.
He attacked Denmark and incorporated the provinces of Skåne, Blekinge,
Halland, and Bohuslän into Sweden, thus establishing Sweden's
natural frontiers along the western and southern coasts. Charles
X died in 1660 and was succeeded by his son, Charles XI, who was
only four years old.
Charles XI proved to have inherited the military genius of the
Vasas. When he assumed the crown in 1672 he fought a series of
wars by which he was able to preserve intact the territories of
Sweden, and then turned his attention to domestic reform. He curbed
the power of the nobility, and left Sweden reformed and restored
at his death in 1697.
Charles XII and the end of the Swedish empire
Charles XI was succeeded by his son, Charles XII, `the wonder of Europe´.
He spent the 20 years of his reign in almost constant warfare,
and it was at this stage that the strain of maintaining a scattered
empire, harassed by ambitious states with large populations and
resources, began to tell on a country that had only a small population.
Charles astonished Europe with his boldness and enterprise,
and won many brilliant victories, penetrating, on one occasion,
deep into Russia. But ranged against him was a formidable coalition
of powers, and his schemes were too grandiose to be fulfilled,
even by a military genius of his calibre. In the end he was clearly
defeated, and probably only his death in 1718 saved Sweden from
utter disaster. The Swedish empire was dismembered in a series
of treaties, 1719-21. Most of the German provinces were ceded
to Britain, Hanover, and Prussia, while Russia was confirmed in
its possession of Livonia, Estonia, and Ingermanland (or Ingria,
an area around the head of the Gulf of Finland, northeast of Estonia).
On Charles XII's death the Swedish monarchy lost its absolute
power, and under Frederick I (king 1720- 51) and Adolphus Frederick
(king 1751-71) a form of parliamentary government prevailed. This
system, with its bitter party quarrels between the factions known
as the `Hats´ and the `Caps´, was brought to an end after a coup
d'état by the young Gustavus III in 1772, under whom science and
culture flourished. However, Gustavus proved less successful in
his political ventures, and he was assassinated at a masked ball
in 1792.
The Napoleonic era and the advent of the Bernadottes
Gustavus III was succeeded by his son, Gustavus IV, an implacable opponent
of Napoleon. After entering into alliance with France, Russia
invaded and occupied Finland, and in 1809 this part of the Swedish
kingdom had to be ceded to the tsar. Shortly before this Gustavus
IV was deposed.
Gustavus's uncle, who succeeded as Charles XIII in 1809, was
infirm, and to secure the goodwill of Napoleon the Riksdag accepted
Napoleon's marshal, Bernadotte, as Crown Prince Charles John in
1810. He took over the government, but did not further Napoleon's
ambitions against Britain and Russia. He became a truly national
Swedish leader, and brought Sweden into the alliance against Napoleon
in 1813. He made war on Denmark to secure Norway as recompense
for the loss of Finland, and then later invaded Norway, whose
union with Sweden was confirmed by the great powers in 1814.
In 1818 Charles XIII died and Bernadotte succeeded as Charles
XIV, initiating the dynasty that still reigns in Sweden. His son,
Oscar I, who reigned from 1844 to 1859, introduced many democratic
reforms. In the reign of Oscar II (1872-1907) Norway seceded from
Sweden (1905), a peaceful settlement being made at Karlstad.
Sweden enters the 20th century
During the 20th century Sweden maintained its long tradition of neutrality
and political stability, and introduced a highly developed system
of social welfare. The office of ombudsman is a Swedish invention,
and Sweden was one of the first countries to adopt a system of
open government.
Oscar II was succeeded by his son Gustavus V (1907-50), during
whose reign democracy was further extended, social services introduced
or expanded, and a universal franchise introduced. The acknowledgement
of the growth of party politics dates from the dissolution of
the union with Norway. Industrialization had encouraged the growth
of socialism, which, in its Swedish manifestation, took on a moderate,
social democratic bent.
During World War I Sweden was neutral, and in 1920 it entered
the League of Nations. In the 1920s party politics were irritated
by the prohibition question, which completely split the Liberals
and caused divisions on the left. There was a series of different
governments. The problem of unemployment helped to increase the
prestige of the Social Democrats. Total prohibition was rejected
in 1922, but a liquor- control system was enforced, which had
some success in the rural districts, but was finally abolished
in 1955.
Sweden in World War II
Sweden was neutral during World War II, although, when the USSR invaded
Finland, Sweden showed its sympathy by opening its frontiers to
Finnish refugees and enrolling volunteers to fight for the Finns.
When the Germans made a demand in 1940 for transit facilities
for troops and supplies through Sweden to Norway (which the Germans
had recently occupied), the Riksdag complied, but Sweden really
had no choice in the matter. The Swedish prime minister, however,
rejected Germany's invitation to Sweden to join its `New Order´.
Throughout 1943 Sweden continued to remain on friendly terms
with all the belligerents, though public opinion had been largely
pro-British since the occupation of Norway and Denmark by Germany
in 1940. In 1943 the government obtained Germany's consent to
the cancellation of the transit agreement, and transport of German
material and military personnel through Sweden ceased.
In September 1944 the Swedish government announced that all
Swedish Baltic ports and waters would be closed to foreign shipping,
owing to the new situation in the Baltic brought about by the
Soviet- Finnish armistice of that year. This resulted in the virtual
stoppage of Swedish-German trade for the duration of the war.
Sweden's international role
After World War II Sweden took part in the relief work and reconstruction
of the war-ravaged countries. It joined the United Nations in
1946 and has played an important part in the work of the organization.
The Swedish diplomat Dag Hammarskjöld was secretary general of
the UN 1953-61, and Sweden regularly contributed troops to UN
peace-keeping forces in areas such as the Middle East, the Congo,
and Cyprus. Sweden promoted the UN conference on environmental
protection in Stockholm in 1972.
Sweden maintained its neutrality throughout the Cold War, refusing
to follow Norway and Denmark in joining the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). In 1952 it became a founder-member of the
Nordic Council, an organization established to further the mutual
interests of the Scandinavian countries. It also became a founder
member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959,
but because of its neutrality it did not seek membership of the
European Economic Community (EEC) - although eventually joined
the European Union (EU) in 1995, following the end of the Cold
War.
The Social Democrats and the welfare state
At home the Social Democrats (the Social Democratic Labour Party, or
SAP) remained in power after the war continuously until 1976,
under prime ministers Tage Erlander (PM 1946-69) and Olof Palme
(PM 1969 -76, and again in 1982-86). However, as a minority party
for most of this period, they either were in coalition with, or
relied on, the support of other parties. A national health service
was introduced in 1955 and a generous state pension scheme in
1959. Overall, Sweden developed one of the world's most comprehensive
welfare systems, and achieved one of the highest standards of
living in Europe.
During Palme's first premiership there were two major reforms
of the constitution. In 1971 the chambers in parliament were reduced
from two to one, and in 1975, following the death of Gustavus
VI (ruled 1950-73), the last of the monarch's constitutional powers
were removed. Gustavus was succeeded by his grandson Carl XVI
Gustaf, who only has a symbolic function. In the general election
of 1976 Palme was defeated over the issue of the level of taxation
needed to fund the welfare system.
The end of Social Democratic hegemony
A coalition of the Centre (C), Conservative, and Liberal (Fp) parties,
with Thorbjörn Fälldin, the leader of the Centre Party, as prime
minister, took office in 1976, ending 44 years of Social Democratic
rule. The government operated a mixed economy in close cooperation
with private industry, and central wage negotiations between employers
and trade unions produced almost unbroken industrial peace.
The Fälldin administration fell in 1978 over its wish to follow
a non- nuclear energy policy, and was replaced by a minority Liberal
Party government. Fälldin returned in 1979, heading another coalition,
and in a referendum the following year there was a narrow majority
in favour of continuing with a limited nuclear- energy programme.
Palme's second premiership
Fälldin remained in power until 1982, when the Social Democrats (SAP)
under Olof Palme returned as a minority government. Palme was
soon faced with deterioriating relations with the USSR, arising
from suspected violations of Swedish territorial waters by Soviet
submarines. However, the situation had improved substantially
by 1985. In February 1986 Palme was murdered by an unknown assailant.
His deputy, Ingvar Carlsson, took over as prime minister and leader
of the SAP.
Economic problems
In the September 1988 general election Carlsson and the SAP were re-elected
with a reduced majority. In February 1990, with mounting opposition
to its economic policies, the government resigned, leaving Carlsson
as caretaker prime minister. In December 1990 the Riksdag supported
the government's decision to apply for European Community (EC)
membership, but in the September 1991 elections Carlsson's government
was defeated.
He was succeeded as prime minister by Carl Bildt who led a minority
coalition government, comprising the Moderate Party, the Fp, the
C, and the Christian Democratic Community Party (KdS). In September
1992 an unprecedented agreement between Bildt's coalition and
the right-wing populist party, New Democracy, pledged cooperation
in solving the country's economic problems. In the September 1994
general election the SAP won most seats, although not an overall
majority, and Ingvar Carlsson returned to power at the head of
a minority government. In August 1995 it was announced that Carlsson
would step down as prime minister in March 1996, once his party
had chosen a replacement. In December 1995 Goran Persson, the
finance minister, was chosen to succeed him.
A national referendum in November 1994 narrowly supported the
country's application for European Union (EU) membership, and
in January 1995 Sweden became a full EU member.
In March 1996 Persson replaced Carlsson as planned. Persson,
acknowledging that Sweden faced several more years of austerity
and welfare cutbacks, appointed Erik Asbrink as finance minister.
He also pledged to close nuclear power plants within two years.
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