Denmark
Peninsula and islands in northern Europe, bounded to the north by
the Skagerrak, east by the Kattegat, south by Germany, and west
by the North Sea.
Government
Under the 1849 constitution, revised most recently 1953, there is a
hereditary monarch with no personal political power and a single-chamber
parliament, the Folketing. The prime minister and cabinet are
drawn from and responsible to the Folketing, which has 179 members
elected by adult franchise - 175 representing metropolitan Denmark,
two for the Faroe Islands, and two for Greenland. Voting is by
proportional representation; the Folketing has a life of four
years but may be dissolved within this period if the government
is defeated on a vote of confidence. The government need resign
only on what it itself defines as a `vital element´ of policy.
History
Some of the earliest prehistoric remains in Denmark have been found
at Maglemose and Ertebolle, where pottery as well as tools in
bone and stone provide evidence of the hunting and fishing activities
of the Mesolithic period following the end of the last ice age
(around 9000 BC). Agriculture, the mark of the Neolithic period,
appears to have been practised in Denmark from around 4000 BC.
From the evidence of megalithic tombs and the remains of cultivated
cereals and domestic animals, settlement for most of the Neolithic
period appears to have been on the coasts. From the 3rd millenium
BC the Beaker people spread to Denmark, mostly settling in Jutland.
In the later Neolithic many fine stone copies were made of imported
metal weapons.
Bronze-using communities settled soon after 1650 BC. They developed
an exquisite art, inventing also the signal horn (or lur), which
is one of the oldest musical instruments in the world. The most
interesting finds of this period are an oak coffin in a barrow
at Havdrup with the clothes covering a male skeleton completely
preserved, and a woman's clothing found complete in a coffin at
Borum- Eshoi.
The Danish Iron Age
The Iron Age in Denmark dates from around 500 BC and coincides with
a worsening of climate. To this period belong the completely preserved
bodies of sacrificial victims found in Jutland bogs at Tollund,
Grauballe, and elsewhere, and also a silver cauldron from Gundestrup
embossed with heads of Celtic deities (although the cauldron is
now thought to have originated in southeast Europe, indicating
how far goods were being traded at this time)
In the later Iron Age, although Denmark was far beyond the limits
of Roman conquest, many goods were imported from the Mediterranean.
Silver worked in Italy has been found in Hoby, and there are references
to what is now Denmark in the works of the Roman writers Pliny
and Tacitus. There is little trace of the period of mass migrations
in the earlier centuries of the 1st millenium AD, although it
is known that the Jutes were settling in southern England from
around the 5th century.
The Viking era
The history of Denmark during the first 900 years AD is generally obscure,
and much information must be derived from saga and legend. Tradition
gives Sja{lig}lland (the main Danish island, also called Zealand)
as the original home of these peoples, and certainly a religious
sanctuary. However, the original home of the Danes was actually
Sweden, from where they migrated in the 5th and 6th centuries.
The Danes began to achieve European prominence during the 9th
century. With the Norwegians and Swedes they became known as the
Vikings, and it is as Vikings that the Frankish chronicles of
the time of Charlemagne make mention of them; during the 9th century
the stories of their raids and the deaths of their kings are mentioned
as events in the history of Scotland and of England.
The history of Denmark becomes less obscure about the beginning
of the 9th century. Danish raids on the east coast of England
continued throughout the century, establishing a large area of
Danish rule known as the Danelaw. Vikings from Denmark also raided
extensively in northern and western France, until in 911 they
were ceded Normandy (`land of the Norse´) by the French king;
the Normans, as the Vikings who settled in France became known,
were to play an important role in the history of western Europe
over the next few centuries.
Attempts were made from Germany to convert the Danes to Christianity,
but although the Danish kings began to be recognized by the other
kings of Europe it was not until Harald Bluetooth (c. 940-985)
unified Denmark that Christianity was firmly established. During
the 10th century Denmark tried to extend its territories, and
parts of Germany were seized, especially the mouths of the rivers.
During the reign of Canute the conquest of England, started by
his father Sweyn, was completed, and Canute became king of England
in 1016. Canute went on to conquer Norway, of which he became
king in 1028. However, after his death his empire of Denmark,
England, and Norway soon fell apart. Between the death of Canute
and the accession of Waldemar I, Denmark suffered internal troubles
and continual disputed successions.
The later medieval period
With the accession of Waldemar (I) the Great (ruled 1157-82) Denmark
began to become a really strong and consolidated kingdom. Being
the most fertile of the countries of Scandinavia, and the nearest
to the rest of European civilization, gave Denmark advantages
that it was not slow to use. Under Waldemar and his successors
Canute VI (ruled 1182-1202) and Waldemar (II) the Conqueror (ruled
1202-41) Denmark dominated the Baltic again.
In 1241 Waldemar II died and throughout the 13th and 14th centuries
civil war and constitutional struggles continued. The nobles gradually
became more powerful than the king, who was shorn of many of his
prerogatives. The nobles gained charters, but used their power
simply for the increase of their own wealth. On the death of Christopher
II in 1332, Denmark was torn by internal strife to the point of
disintegration.
Royal power was re-established, however, by Waldemar IV (ruled
1340-75). Under his daughter Margaret, Denmark, Norway (together
with Iceland), and Sweden were united by the Union of Kalmar (1397).
This union benefited only Denmark and was highly unpopular in
the other two countries. Furthermore, it threatened the power
of the Hanseatic League, with the result that Denmark found itself
involved in a long war with the duchy of Holstein to the south
- the work of the league.
Under Christian I (ruled 1448-81) the German-speaking Holstein
and the neighbouring Danish-speaking duchy of Schleswig - both
fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire - were incorporated into Denmark
in 1460, and the king had to promise that the two dukedoms should
remain united for ever (they were held by Christian's descendants
until 1863 as Schleswig-Holstein). Once again the authority of
the crown began to deteriorate. The monarch steadily lost power
to the landowners, who became the aristocracy of the 15th century,
and the peasants were reduced to serfs.
Swedish independence
Sweden had declared itself independent of the union in 1449. Norway
remained with Denmark - it was by far the poorest of the three
kingdoms and had been practically depopulated by the Black Death.
Sweden was still for a time nominally ruled by the Danish monarchs,
and Denmark was still the leading power of the three kingdoms,
but the union received a fatal blow in a massacre of leading Swedes
by Christian II (ruled 1513-23) in Stockholm in 1520. From that
time the Swedes were the irreconcilable foes of the union. Christian
II attempted to establish a strong and well-governed kingdom,
but he was finally driven into exile, and his uncle became king
as Frederick I in 1523. In the same year Sweden finally established
its total independence by the election of Gustavus Vasa to the
throne of that country.
The Reformation
The reign of Frederick I was a period of transition, but during the
reign 1535-59 of his son Christian III, the religious doctrines
of the Reformation were definitely established in Denmark. The
townspeople and the peasants attempted a rising in 1534-36 against
the nobility, but they were denounced by the assembly of lords.
The assembly of lords also dealt a final blow to the Roman Catholic
Church in Denmark, the lands of the bishops being handed over
to the king and the lords. A new church ordinance was drawn up
and approved by Martin Luther, and in 1537 the Danish church became
entirely Protestant.
The rise and fall of Denmark as a great power
The power of Denmark increased. During the 16th century Denmark was
one of the great powers of Europe, the reign of Frederick II (1559-88)
and the early part of the reign of Christian IV (1588-1648) being
the period of the country's greatest strength, although in 1563-
70 there was a disastrous attempt to regain Sweden. The accession
of Christian IV marks the start of a transitional period. The
power of the monarch, although nominally very great, was in reality
limited by the liberties and privileges of the nobility and by
the increasing power of the burghers.
Denmark was, above all else, a great Scandinavian power, and
it still possessed Norway. This led it into continual disputes
with Sweden and also with the maritime nations, the Netherlands
and England, who coveted the North Sea fisheries. Denmark exploited
its controlling position at the entrance and exit of the Baltic
by levying a duty on the cargo of all ships passing through the
Sound.
However, Christian IV's intervention in 1625-29 on the Protestant
side in the Thirty Years' War was disastrous, as was his attempt
to retake Sweden in 1643-45. Before the end of his reign, Denmark
had begun to lose to Sweden some of its territories, and from
that time its possessions continually grew smaller.
The next king, Frederick III (ruled 1648-70), although still
further shorn of his royal powers, was nevertheless imbued with
an idea of winning back the lost territories. In this he was steadfastly
supported by his people, and finally, when Charles X of Sweden
seemed to be surrounded by insuperable difficulties in Poland,
Denmark rushed to war in 1657. It was defeated and crushed by
the Swedes, and was forced to sign a disastrous peace at Roskilde
in 1658. This was followed by a second war with Sweden, and this
time the terms of the treaty (1660) were rather easier for Denmark;
much that it had given up was restored, but its provinces in southern
Sweden were lost, and the dominion of the north passed out of
its hands for ever.
The establishment of absolute monarchy
The wars of 1657-60 with Sweden had the further result of removing
the privileges from the nobles, and finally, after much intrigue
and a threatened coup d'état, Frederick III succeeded in forcing
the council of the realm to recognize him as a hereditary monarch.
Thanks to the burghers he was soon able to establish himself as
an absolute monarch, ruling through a burgher bureaucracy. From
1660 to 1848 Danish kings ruled according to `the king's law´
without a parliament or an assembly of the three estates (nobility,
clergy, and commons). The change was on the whole beneficial to
Denmark and of vast importance to Norway, which became prosperous
and more energetic.
During the reign of Christian V 1670- 99, and under the wise
diplomacy of Chancellor Griffenfeldt, Denmark seemed likely to
become again a great European power. The ambitions of France and
the alliance of that country with Sweden gave Denmark its opportunity.
The chancellor played his hand with skill, and it was not until
Sweden openly attacked Prussia that Denmark came definitely into
the field as the opponent of the French and Swedes. The fall of
Griffenfeldt in 1676, however, paved the way for the humiliation
of Denmark, and the peace made in 1679 did not benefit Denmark
at all, although it had borne the brunt of the fighting.
Denmark in the 18th century
During the early part of the 18th century Denmark played an important
part in the Great Northern War, in which Sweden, Poland, and Russia
were involved, only to find at the end of it that Prussia and
Hanover benefited by its territorial conquests, while it had to
remain satisfied with financial compensation and the incorporation
of the ducal part of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom.
For a time the country remained at peace, and a beginning was
made in the attempt to end serfdom in Denmark. During the 18th
century it was mainly questions of land tenure and agriculture
that troubled Danish politicians.
The second half of the century was dominated by the political
leaders J H E and Andreas Peter Bernstorff. Under the leadership
of the Bernstorffs matters improved, and before the end of the
century Denmark had declared the importation of corn to be free
and had practically emancipated its peasantry (serfdom was finally
abolished in 1788). The foreign policy of the century was one
of firm neutrality, enabling Denmark to steer clear of all the
wars that Europe waged during this period.
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Denmark's close adherence to its policy of neutrality, together with
its domination by Russia, resulted in two breaches with Britain
in the early 19th century. In 1800 Prussia, Sweden, Russia, and
Denmark, resenting Britain's attempt to end their trade with France,
formed the `armed neutrality of the north´ (Russia having practically
forced the acquiescence of Denmark). Napoleon closed the continental
ports and the British navy replied by a blockade of western Europe.
When Denmark organized a convoy system to protect its shipping,
Britain dispatched a fleet under Hyde Parker and Horatio Nelson
to Copenhagen, where in 1801 the Danish fleet was destroyed and
the fortifications dismantled.
The second breach was caused by Napoleon's desire to close the
harbours of the north to British trade. Denmark wished to remain
neutral, and if this was not possible was resolved to attack even
France; but a British fleet was dispatched in 1807 to take possession
of the Danish fleet, and at the same time to offer Denmark very
generous terms. Denmark was prepared to be courted, but not to
be coerced. As a result Britain took by force what it could not
obtain by diplomacy, seizing the Danish fleet and bombarding Copenhagen.
As a result Denmark became an ally of Napoleon and remained staunch
to the end of the war.
In 1814, by the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark lost Norway to Sweden,
although Iceland (which had come under Danish rule along with
Norway in the 14th century) remained attached to Denmark. In the
following year, as duke of Holstein, the Danish king joined the
German Confederation, but refused to allow Schleswig to become
a member of it, since it formed part of the Danish kingdom.
Liberal reform
The position of Denmark during the period immediately after the Napoleonic
Wars was one of great poverty and distress. Essentially an agricultural
country, it was impoverished by the falling price of corn; and
the loss of Norway was by no means as great a relief as it seemed.
One great reform was introduced during this period: a law of 1814
that provided for the compulsory education of every child from
7 to 14. More liberal measures followed, and in 1849 the liberal
movement was powerful enough to compel Frederick VII (ruled 1848-
63) to grant a democratic constitution). Absolute monarchy had
ended.
The Schleswig-Holstein question
In March 1848 the German Holstein leaders demanded a free joint constitution
for Schleswig and Holstein, while the Danish National Liberals
advocated a free constitution for Denmark and Schleswig and the
separation of Holstein from Schleswig. The Germans in Holstein
revolted with Prussian support, and the ensuing war between Denmark
and Holstein 1848-50 had great international ramifications. Finally
the Protocol of London was drawn up by the great non-German powers
in 1850, guaranteeing the indivisibility of the Danish monarchy.
Denmark had to promise not to attach itself closer to Schleswig
than to Holstein.
However, in 1863 Denmark promised Holstein a new constitution
of its own, while Schleswig was to have a joint constitution with
Denmark. In pursuit of his expansionist policy the Prussian chancellor
Otto von Bismarck used this breach of the 1850 agreement as an
excuse for war, and in 1864 Denmark was defeated and lost both
Holstein and Schleswig. The loss of Schleswig necessitated a revised
constitution, which was instituted in 1866.
Denmark in the earlier 20th
century In 1901 the Farmers' Party formed their first administration;
but of greater ultimate political significance was the rise of
the Danish Social Democratic Party during this period, though
it did not yet succeed in gaining office.
During World War I Denmark maintained its neutrality, and by
the Treaty of Versailles it was decided to settle the Schleswig
question by plebiscite. In 1920 northern Schleswig voted to rejoin
Denmark by 75,431 votes to 25,329, and was incorporated with Denmark
under the name South Jutland Provinces.
In 1924 the first Social Democratic government came to power
with the assistance of the Radicals, who had governed the country
during World War I. After a Liberal interval in 1926-29, the Social
Democrats ruled until World War II.
Denmark in World War II
Denmark's position at the opening of World War II was difficult. It
had coordinated its policy of neutrality with that of the other
Scandinavian states, and pledges were given by both Germany and
Britain to respect that neutrality. Despite the nonaggression
pact that the Nazi leader Hitler had signed with Denmark on 31
May 1939, German troops marched across the Danish frontier on
9 April 1940. Heavy concentrations of German forces on the Schleswig
border had warned the Danes of the menace to their country, but
they were powerless. The Social Democratic premier Thorvald Stauning
gave in under strong protest.
King Christian X appealed to the country to show a dignified
and correct demeanour to the Germans. People felt bound by loyalty
to his request. Gradually effective power passed from Stauning
to the collaborationist Erik Scavenius, the foreign minister.
Leading politicians were forced out of office and replaced by
collaborators, writers were arrested, and censorship imposed.
The Germans also openly discussed Denmark's role as a vassal state
in the `new order´. The Danish army was reduced to the size and
function of a mere police force. Danish agriculture and industry
were pressed into the service of the Germans.
The most valuable part of the Danish mercantile marine, however,
was out of the Germans' reach on 9 April 1940 and joined the Allied
cause. Meanwhile a Danish council had been set up in London as
a rallying centre for Danes abroad who wished to fight for the
Allies. From the end of August 1943 the Danes were openly at war
with Germany. Earlier the Scavenius government, with the endorsement
of King Christian, had rejected a German ultimatum imposing all
manner of restrictions on Danish life and liberty.
The Danes had always been convinced of Germany's ultimate defeat
and chafed under the stigma of the great betrayal of 1940, which
tricked them into apparent acquiescence in the German occupation.
A resistance movement had emerged in 1940, and under the leadership
of the Danish Freedom Council, which maintained close liaison
with the Allied military command, the resistance intensified sabotage
against German lines of communication and strategic establishments.
Many Danes died at the hands of the Gestapo. On 5 May 1945 the
German armies in Denmark , northwest Germany, and the Netherlands
surrendered to Field Marshal Montgomery, who during a visit to
Copenhagen later in the month declared that the Danish resistance
movement had been `second to none ´.
The postwar years
Since World War II left-of-centre policies have dominated Danish politics,
and proportional representation has encouraged a moderate approach.
Immediately after the war steps were taken to restore the prosperity
of the Danish economy and revive the democratic machinery of government.
Prosperity returned remarkably quickly, though Denmark has suffered
almost continuous inflationary pressures since 1945. A coalition
government bridged the immediate postwar period, but the Social
Democrats soon re-established their commanding position, though
they have often been forced to rely on support from other parties
in order to govern effectively.
King Christian died in 1947, and was succeeded by his son Frederick
IX. Abandoning its traditional neutrality, Denmark joined NATO
in 1949, the Council of Europe in the same year, and the Nordic
Council (a body representing the mutual interests of the Scandinavian
countries) in 1952. The constitution of 1953 abolished the two-chamber
legislature and the sole legislative chamber is now the Folketing.
A new succession law was linked to the new constitution. This
restricted the succession right to descendants of Christian X
and his wife, and allowed women to succeed to the throne (sovereigns'
daughters ranking after sons). This enabled Frederick IX's eldest
daughter, Margrethe, to become queen on her father's death in
1972. Under the new constitution Greenland (which had become a
Danish colony in the 18th century) was given equal status with
other parts of the Danish kingdom, as were the Faroe Islands.
Iceland, formerly under the Danish crown, had declared itself
an independent republic in 1944.
Denmark as partner in European organizations
In 1959 Denmark joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
In 1961 Denmark applied for membership of the European Economic
Community (EEC), but after Britain's application was rejected
in 1963 Denmark stated that it would not join until Britain was
allowed to do so. When negotiations between Britain and the EEC
were resumed and brought to a successful conclusion in 1972, Denmark
signed a treaty of accession to the EEC which was ratified after
a referendum. Denmark thus became a member of the EEC in 1973,
resigning from EFTA at the same time.
After winning approval in the referendum for his policy of joining
the EEC, Jens Otto Krag (prime minister 1962-68 and 1971-73) resigned
and was succeeded by his fellow Social Democrat Anker Jo rgensen.
A split in the Social Democratic Party led to a fall in the Social
Democrat vote and the rise of a new Progressive Party under Mogens
Glistrup, campaigning on a programme of lower taxes and lower
government spending, including the abolition of Denmark's armed
forces. As prime minister again from 1975, Anker Jorgensen had
to deal with serious problems of rising inflation and unemployment
in the wake of the oil crisis and world recession.
In a referendum in 1992 on European Community (EC) policies,
the Danish people rejected the Maastricht Treaty, triggering referendums
and debates elsewhere in the EC. The Danish government subsequently
proposed modifications (codicils) and the treaty was approved
in a second referendum in May 1993.
After 11 years in office, the Conservative leader Poul Schlüter
resigned as prime minister in January 1993, accused of lying over
his role in an incident involving Tamil refugees. He was succeeded
by Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, heading a Social Democrat-led coalition.
The 1994 general election saw greater support for left-wing parties
but allowed Rasmussen to continue in office with a reconstituted
coalition. The Centre Democrats withdrew from the three- party
coalition in December 1996, but the remaining members continued
to govern.
|
Dansk
In
Danish, minimal info