Switzerland
Landlocked country in western Europe, bounded north by Germany, east
by Austria and Liechtenstein, south by Italy, and west by France.
Government
Switzerland is a federation of 20 cantons and six half-cantons (canton
is the name for a political division, derived from Old French).
The constitution dates from 1874 and provides for a two-chamber
federal assembly, consisting of the National Council and the Council
of States. The National Council has 200 members, elected by universal
suffrage, through a system of proportional representation, for
a four-year term. The Council of States has 46 members, each canton
electing two representatives and each half-canton one. Members
of the Council of States are elected for three or four years,
depending on the constitutions of the individual cantons.
Federal government lies with the Federal Council, consisting
of seven members elected for a four-year term by the assembly,
each heading a specific federal department. The federal assembly
also appoints one member to act as federal head of state and head
of government for a year, the term of office beginning on 1 Jan.
The federal government is allocated specific powers by the constitution
with the remaining powers left with the cantons, each having its
own constitution, assembly, and government. At a level below the
cantons are more than 3,000 communes. Direct democracy is encouraged
through communal assemblies and referenda.
History
In the 1st millenium BC Switzerland was inhabited by Celts. From the
5th century BC the country, especially the south, became a centre
of the Celtic La Tène culture of the Early Iron Age. The La Tène
culture continued to the Roman conquest, at which time there were
two main Celtic tribes, the Helvetii (or Transalpine Gauls) in
the northwest, and the Rhaetians in the southeast. The Roman conquest
of these tribes began as early as 107 BC, when they were defeated
in southern Gaul (modern France), and was completed by Julius
Caesar in 58 BC at the Col d'Armecy.
The early Middle Ages
The ancestors of many of the modern Swiss are the Germanic tribes who
overran this part of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD :
the Alemanni east of the River Aar about AD 406, and the Burgundians
in the southwest in 443. They became Christian about 600-650,
but the Helvetii were not converted until later.
Charlemagne, king of the Franks from 768 and crowned emperor
by the pope in 800, incorporated Switzerland into his domains.
At his death the region fell into confusion, and in the subsequent
partition of his lands half of modern Switzerland was allotted
to the Eastern Frankish kingdom and half to Lotharingia (Lorraine).
In 888 Rudolf of the Guelphic family (see Guelph and Ghibelline)
founded the kingdom of Burgundy, of which west Switzerland formed
a part, while the German regions fell to the duchy of Swabia in
917. In the 11th century Switzerland was united under the German
(Holy Roman) Empire, but in the 12th century many autonomous feudal
holdings developed as the power of the Empire declined. Several
local dynasties rose to power, such as the houses of Zähringen
(1097-1218), Lenzburg, Kyburg, Savoy, and Habsburg. The cities
of Fribourg (1178) and Bern (1191) were founded by the Zähringens
to secure their supremacy against the attacks of the rural nobility.
The formation of the Swiss Confederation A period of chaos ensued,
until in 1273 Rudolf I of Habsburg became Holy Roman emperor,
with control of what is now German Switzerland, and subsequently
extended Habsburg rule over Austria.
The extension of Habsburg power in Switzerland caused alarm
and resistance in the regions round the Lake of Lucerne, and a
few days after Rudolf's death in 1291 the first Perpetual (or
Everlasting) League of the three `forest cantons´ (Uri, Schwyz,
and Unterwalden) was formed, which, in 1315, defeated the Austrian
Habsburg forces at the Battle of Morgarten.
War with the Austrian Habsburgs continued off and on, and Austria
was defeated again at Sempach and Nafels. Other cantons joined
the League: Lucerne (1332), Zürich (1351), Zug and Glarus (1352),
and Bern (1353). As a result, the League extended its influence
and lands, and from this time is usually referred to as the Swiss
Confederation. Switzerland began to prosper, and education, art,
and industry all began to develop during this period.
From 1474 to 1477 the Confederation was at war with Charles
the Bold of Burgundy, defeating him at Grandson and Morat in 1476.
In 1481 Fribourg and Solothurn came into the confederation. In
1499 the Austrian Habsburg emperor, Maximilian I, attempted to
reassert his rule over the eastern region of Rhaetia - which as
the Grey League (Grisons or Graubü nden) had asserted its independence
- but he was defeated at Calven.
Later, during the Reformation, Austria was more successful,
but the Grey Leaguers retained their independence until they at
last joined the Swiss Confederation in 1803. Switzerland's de
facto independence dates from the Swiss victory over the Empire
at Dornach in 1499, after which the Confederation was released
from its obligation to pay the imperial tax.
The Reformation in Switzerland
The Reformation led to internal dissension in Switzerland. During the
period 1523-29 the northern cantons of Zürich, Berne, and Basel
accepted the reformist teachings of Ulrich Zwingli, while the
forest cantons remained Roman Catholic. In the hostilities that
resulted the Catholic troops were victorious, Zwingli was killed
(1531), and a truce was arranged, whereby each canton was left
free to determine its own religion.
In 1536 Bern took the Vaud from the dukes of Savoy, and in the
same year a French theologian, John Calvin, arrived in Geneva
and established a college of pastors there. After a long battle
with some of the leading citizens, Calvin eventually turned the
city into a theocratic republic, which had such influence that
it became known as the `Protestant Rome´. The city was visited
by John Knox and other Scottish and English theologians. Calvin
was succeeded by Théodore Beza.
Calvin's doctrines were far stricter than Zwingli's, and the
Calvinists tolerated no opposition, either from Catholics or from
dissident Protestants within their territory. So while Zwingli
introduced Protestantism into the country and by his struggle
and death ensured its survival, Calvin's doctrines reaped much
of the benefit of his efforts.
Complete independence
From the early 16th century Swiss mercenaries were widely employed
in Europe, and fighting for foreign kings became a flourishing
trade. The Swiss themselves became involved in the Italian wars,
and were defeated by the French at Marignano in 1515 (see Marignano,
Battle of. After this, good relations were established with France,
and the Swiss saw that to keep their linguistically and religiously
fragmented Confederation together they needed to adopt a policy
of neutrality in European wars. Switzerland managed to maintain
its neutrality in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), and at the
end of the war the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) recognized the
final separation of Switzerland from the Habsburg Empire.
Through the 17th and 18th centuries, continued peace helped
the growth of industry and general prosperity, although during
this period the peasantry were much oppressed, and their attempt
in 1653 to secure better conditions was crushed. This confirmed
the hold on power in the various cantons of the patrician oligarchies.
The Helvetic Republic
For 150 years after 1648, the Swiss were able to maintain their neutrality
in Europe's many wars. Following the French Revolution the French
invaded Switzerland (1798), and established the Helvetic Republic,
a ` sister republic´ with a centralized government, under French
control. This centralization did not conform to the Swiss tradition
of local self- government; nevertheless it created for the first
time a national unity, though imposed from outside. The Helvetic
Republic introduced a uniform Swiss monetary system, using Latin
inscriptions, so as not to conflict with any of the various language
groups - a device still in use today.
In the Act of Mediation (1802-03), Napoleon recognized the sovereignty
of the cantons, making Switzerland a democratic federation. But
only in 1815 was Switzerland's independence fully restored, and
its permanent neutrality guaranteed, at the Congress of Vienna.
Switzerland also received Geneva and other territories, increasing
the number of cantons to 22.
Religious conflict and constitutional reform
During the 19th century religious differences led to bitter controversy
and conflict. In 1847 war broke out between Liberal Protestants
and the seven Roman Catholic cantons, the latter having formed
a separatist league or Sonderbund (1845), as a result of the suppression
of various monasteries by the Liberals in the canton of Aargau.
After a short campaign, Gen G H Dufour, at the head of the federal
army, defeated the Catholics.
In 1848 a new federal constitution was adopted, and peace signed,
giving the Protestants nearly all they had fought for. Switzerland
was transformed from a confederation of independent states into
one federal state, with the central government possessing wide
powers. Bern was chosen as the capital. In 1874 a revision of
the federal constitution was introduced, giving wider powers to
the state, especially in military matters, but also introducing
the principle of the referendum.
Manufacturing industry continued to develop in the 19th century,
which also witnessed the introduction of the railways, and tourism
began to emerge as an important industry; these factors led to
growing prosperity.
The early 20th century
Surrounded by belligerent countries during World War I, Switzerland
nevertheless retained its neutrality, though the French-speaking
and German-speaking populations naturally differed in their sympathies.
Switzerland participated in a non- military capacity by organizing
Red Cross units, tracing the missing, and permitting incapacitated
prisoners of war to be interned within its frontiers.
In 1920 Switzerland joined the League of Nations, which made
its permanent headquarters in Geneva. For the next 19 years Switzerland
was therefore at the centre of international politics. In 1923
Switzerland formed a customs union with Liechtenstein.
Switzerland in World War II
In World War II the conquest of France by Germany in 1940 made Switzerland
economically dependent upon the latter, and on 11 August 1940
a new trade agreement between the two countries was signed. In
the same year the Federal Council dissolved the Swiss Nationalist
Movement, a totalitarian organization connected with the Nazis,
and soon afterwards the Communist Party was also dissolved. When
the war spread to the USSR and the Balkans the trade agreement
Switzerland had made with the USSR earlier in 1941 became worthless.
Germany then brought pressure on Switzerland to enter into the
closest possible economic association, and, as a reprisal against
this second agreement, Great Britain intensified its blockade
against Switzerland. The country's position was made more difficult
by attempts to subvert it from within by the highly organized
German Nazi Party in Switzerland itself. After the German invasion
of the USSR Germany demanded that Switzerland participate in the
`fight for Europe´ and adhere to the `New Order´. Only very few
Swiss fought in the German army, however, and these were condemned
by Swiss military courts for serving with a foreign power.
Switzerland's international role
Switzerland did not become a member of the United Nations (UN) after
World War II, but joined UNESCO and other international organizations,
and took part in the Marshall Plan, the programme of US economic
aid to postwar Europe. Switzerland joined the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) in 1960, but has not sought membership of the
European Union (EU).
A referendum in 1986 rejected the advice of the government and
came out overwhelmingly against membership of the UN, and in 1992
another referendum rejected closer ties with the European Community.
A further referendum in June 1994 rejected a proposal for Switzerland
to participate in UN peacekeeping operations. Nevertheless, the
headquarters of many UN and other international bodies (such as
the World Health Organization and the International Red Cross)
are based in Switzerland, which has also been the site of many
peace conferences.
Social and economic affairs
Switzerland's economic development has been peaceful and prosperous,
and political stability has helped it to become, per person, one
of the world's richest countries. Switzerland absorbed large numbers
of migrant workers, who account for about one- sixth of the country's
labour force. In a referendum held in 1975 the Swiss electorate,
following the advice of the federal government, rejected the idea
of repatriation of migrant workers.
Tourism has continued to be a growth industry in Switzerland,
bringing in large amounts of foreign currency. The Swiss landscape
has given the country many natural advantages in this industry,
but the influx of so many foreign tourists has not been without
its side effects on Swiss society and economy.
The formation of a new canton, Jura, along the Franco-German
linguistic frontier caused some friction, and even violence, between
the two communities. The French-speaking Catholic inhabitants
of the area had pressed for separation from the predominantly
German-speaking Protestant canton of Bern, and in 1979 Jura officially
became the 23rd canton.
Political stability
The country's domestic politics have been characterized by coalition
governments and stability. In 1971 women gained the right to vote
in federal elections, and in 1991 18- year-olds were allowed to
vote for the first time.
The October 1987 election returned a four-party coalition to
power, although there was a significant increase in the number
of seats held by the Green Party. The October 1991 election saw
little change in the resulting seat distribution, with the four-party
coalition again retaining control. Jean-Paul Delamuraz succeeded
Kaspar Villiger as head of state in January 1996, and in 1997
Arnold Koller was elected president.
Swiss banks and wartime gold
In 1997 Switzerland came under international pressure over allegations
that its banks were holding deposits worth billions of pounds
made by Jewish families during World War II. The three banks principally
implicated, Crédit Suisse, the Union Bank of Switzerland, and
Swiss Bank Corp, agreed in February 1997 to set up a $70 million/£43
million compensation fund for heirs of the Holocaust victims.
In March 1997 the government announced plans to endow a £3 billion
foundation for victims of Nazi genocide. With threats that Swiss
businesses would be boycotted unless the question of ` lost´ Jewish
bank accounts and wartime gold dealing was addressed, politicians
and diplomats were forced to meet the growing crisis with concrete
action.
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